Cancer Treatment Method: 2011

Tuesday 11 October 2011

Questions to Ask Your Doctor About Bone Cancer

If you've been recently diagnosed with osteosarcoma, you probably have many thoughts running through your head and you may feel unable to think clearly. Your doctor will understand this. You should feel free to ask questions about any concerns you may have. Be sure to take a pen and pad with you, as you probably won't remember all the answers. If the doctor uses words you don't understand, ask for an explanation.

Bone cancer can start in the bones (primary bone cancer) or spread to the bones from a different part of the body (bone metastases). Osteosarcoma is one type of primary bone cancer. It can occur at any age, but is most common in individuals between the ages of 10 and 30. In addition, about 10 percent of osteosarcomas are found in people over 60.

Osteosarcoma is the most common type of cancer that starts in the bone. It is most common in children and adolescents. The cells that form osteosarcoma make bone matrix, the material that makes bone strong. But the bone matrix produced by osteosarcoma cells is not as strong as the bone matrix produced by normal bone cells.

In general, cancer begins when a genetic mutation (change in certain genes) turns normal, healthy cells into abnormal cells. Healthy cells grow and multiply at a set rate and eventually die at a set time. Abnormal cells grow and multiply out of control, and they do not die. The abnormal cells clump together to create a mass (tumor). Cancer cells invade nearby tissues and can separate from an initial tumor to spread to other parts of the body (metastasize).

Sometimes, people with osteosarcoma do not have any symptoms. In other cases, their symptoms are similar to those of other medical conditions. Osteosarcoma can cause any of the signs and symptoms listed below.

The stages of osteosarcoma are used to describe how far the cancer has spread in your body. The higher the stage number, the more widespread the cancer is. These stages are important when choosing the best treatments for you.

To choose your treatment, your doctor will probably decide which of the following three stages best describes your osteosarcoma:

If you have some of the symptoms of osteosarcoma, your doctor will begin your diagnosis with a medical history and physical exam.

Medical history and physical examination - Your doctor will take a complete medical history by asking you about your risk factors, symptoms, and other health problems or concerns. The doctor will also do a physical exam to look for signs of osteosarcoma and other health problems.

Your stage of osteosarcoma and your overall health will determine the method your doctor recommends for treating your illness. The mains ways of attacking osteosarcoma are surgery and chemotherapy (drugs). Radiation therapy is used in relatively few cases.

Your doctor will work with you to choose the best treatment for your osteosarcoma based on:

Your surgeon will remove the cancer with limb-salvage surgery, if possible. If the tumor has grown into the nerves and/or blood vessels, it might not be possible to save the arm or leg. In this case, amputation, or removal of all or part of the limb along with the cancer, may be the only option.

Treatment of Metastatic Osteosarcoma

If your tumor has already spread at the time of diagnosis, surgery may still be considered. Alternatively, chemotherapy alone or radiation alone may be used. The likelihood of cure is much less than with localized disease. Some studies suggest that the location of metastases influences survival, with patients who have lung metastases faring better than those with spread to other bones.

Treatment of Recurrent Osteosarcoma

If your osteosarcoma comes back (recurs), this is most likely to happen within 2 or 3 years after treatment. Later recurrences are very rare. The most likely place for the cancer to recur is the lung. Attempted resection is probably the most appropriate initial treatment for patients who recur beyond one year after initial therapy with a small number of pulmonary nodules that do not invade the lining of the lung, and that can be completely removed by surgery (see below). Although some of these patients may be cured with surgery alone, most receive a combination of surgery plus chemotherapy. This depends on which treatments were given at the time of initial diagnosis.

Chemotherapy for Osteosarcoma

Chemotherapy drugs are used to kill cancer cells. These drugs destroy cancer that is still left after surgery, slow the tumor's growth, or reduce symptoms. Most cases of osteosarcoma are treated with chemotherapy before surgery to shrink the tumor (neoadjuvant therapy) and after surgery (adjuvant therapy) to kill any cancer cells left in the body. The chemotherapy drugs used for osteosarcoma are usually injected into a vein, although they are sometimes taken by mouth or injected under the skin to limit their side effects.

Radiation Therapy for Osteosarcoma

Radiation therapy uses high-energy x-rays or other types of radiation to kill cancer cells. It can be given internally or externally:

Osteosarcoma can only be cured with surgery. The main types of surgery for osteosarcomas that start in the arms or legs are surgery to remove the cancer without removing the arm or leg (limb-salvage surgery) and amputation.

Bone health is maintained through active processes that are constantly taking place in the bone tissue. Cancer and its treatment may disrupt this activity and compromise bone health. Bone complications occur when cancer spreads to the bones, causing pain, a weakening of the bones that makes them more susceptible to fracture, and/or a dangerously high level of calcium in the blood.

Screening and Prevention

Screening

Screening tests can be useful in detecting certain types of cancer at an early stage. However, no screening tests can find osteosarcoma early. The best way to make sure that osteosarcoma is treated at the earliest possible stage, when it is most curable, is to ask your doctor as soon as potential signs or symptoms of the disease appear. On average, osteosarcoma symptoms start about 3 months before the cancer is diagnosed.

Prevention

Changes in certain lifestyle factors, such as eating a healthy diet, exercising, and not smoking, can prevent many cancers in adults. But no lifestyle changes are known to prevent osteosarcoma in either children or adults.

Breast Cancer in Men

Statistics Regarding Men and Breast Cancer

Breast cancer in men is rare—less than 1 percent of all breast carcinomas occur in men. Consider the latest statistics available from the American Cancer Society (ACS):

The ACS estimates that in 2009, approximately 1,910 new cases of invasive breast cancer were diagnosed among men in the United States. Breast cancer is about 100 times more common among women. The average age at diagnosis is 67, although men of all ages can be affected with the disease.

If you've been recently diagnosed with breast cancer, you probably have many thoughts running through your head and you may feel unable to think clearly. Your doctor will understand this. You should feel free to ask questions about any concerns you may have. Be sure to take a pen and pad with you, as you probably won't remember all the answers. If the doctor uses words you don't understand, ask for an explanation.

Breast cancer is the most common form of cancer in women. It will account for an estimated 26 percent of all cancer diagnosed in women in 2010, according to the American Cancer Society. Over the course of a woman's life, she has a 1 in 8 chance of getting the disease. It is also possible for men to develop breast cancer, although this is rare.

If you've received a diagnosis of cancer in one or both of your breasts, you should know that you are not alone. Breast cancer is the most common form of cancer in women, according to the American Cancer Society, which estimates about 207,090 cases of invasive breast cancer and 39,840 deaths from breast cancer in 2010. Over the course of a woman's life, she has a 1 in 8 chance of getting the disease. Breast cancer in men is rare, with an estimated 1,910 cases diagnosed in 2010.

The exact causes of breast cancer are not known. Some women are at higher risk for breast cancer than others. But the fact is all women are at risk. That's why it is so important to follow recommendations for breast health. Early detection of problems provides the greatest possibility for successful treatment.

The risk factors associated with developing invasive breast cancer include:

In the early stages of breast cancer, you may not experience any obvious or painful symptoms. When you do experience symptoms, they will vary based on the size and location of the cancer in your breast.

The following are the most common symptoms of breast cancer. However, each individual may experience symptoms differently. As the cancer grows, it can cause changes that women and men should watch for, such as:

Overview of Tests for Breast Cancer

Screening tests that you may be given to determine if you have breast cancer may include one or more of the following:

Mammography -A mammogram is an x-ray of your breast used to diagnose unusual changes, such as a lump, pain, nipple thickening or discharge, or a change in breast size or shape.

The key to detecting cancer in your breast is obtaining a breast cancer screening test (often a mammogram) from your doctor or health care provider. Screening will help detect the presence of lumps (usually with no cancer) before cancer forms.

What is mammography (mammogram)?

Mammography is an x-ray examination of the breast. It is used to detect and diagnose breast disease in women who have breast problems, such as a lump, pain, or nipple discharge, as well as for women who have no breast complaints. The procedure allows detection of breast cancers, benign tumors, and cysts before they can be detected by palpation (touch).

Breast Biopsy

A breast biopsy removes a sample of breast tissue that is looked at under a microscope to check for breast cancer. A breast biopsy is usually done to check a lump found during a breast examination or a suspicious area found on a mammogram, ultrasound, or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). See a picture of the female breast.

Biopsy Best to Confirm Breast Cancer Diagnosis

A breast biopsy is the preferred follow-up procedure to confirm a cancer diagnosis, even though several other test options exist and may be offered by physicians, according to a report from the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ).

What is fine-needle aspiration?

What is fine-needle aspiration?

Fine-needle aspiration is a method of collecting cells from the breastClick here to see an illustration., liver, mouth, neck, lymph nodes, genitals, respiratory tract, or thyroidClick here to see more information. to look for signs of cancer, infection, or other conditions. A doctor inserts a thin needle into a lump and withdraws a sample of cells or fluid. The material is then examined under a microscope.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) of the Breast

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) Click here to see more information. uses a magnetic field and pulses of radio waves to make pictures of the breast. MRI may show problems in the breast that cannot be seen on a mammogramClick here to see more information., ultrasoundClick here to see more information., or CT scanClick here to see more information..

What are x-rays?

X-rays use invisible electromagnetic energy beams to produce images of internal tissues, bones, and organs on film. Standard x-rays are performed for many reasons, including diagnosing tumors or bone injuries.

X-rays are made by using external radiation to produce images of the body, its organs, and other internal structures for diagnostic purposes. X-rays pass through body structures onto specially-treated plates (similar to camera film) and a "negative" type picture is made (the more solid a structure is, the whiter it appears on the film).

What is positron emission tomography (PET)?

Positron emission tomography (PET) is a type of nuclear medicine procedure that measures metabolic activity of the cells of body tissues. PET is actually a combination of nuclear medicine and biochemical analysis. Used mostly in patients with brain or heart conditions and cancer, PET helps to visualize the biochemical changes taking place in the body, such as the metabolism (the process by which cells change food into energy after food is digested and absorbed into the blood) of the heart muscle.

What is a CT or CAT scan?

A CT or CAT scan is a diagnostic imaging procedure that uses a combination of x-rays and computer technology to produce cross-sectional images (often called slices), both horizontally and vertically, of the body. A CT scan shows detailed images of any part of the body, including the bones, muscles, fat, and organs. CT scans are more detailed than standard x-rays. CT scans also minimize exposure to radiation.

What Are the Stages of Breast Cancer?

Stages of cancer relate to how far the cancer has spread in your body. The higher the stage number, the more widespread is the cancer. These stages are important to determine the type of breast cancer treatment you will receive.
As part of determining your stage of cancer, your health care provider may check the lymph nodes in your armpit (called your axillary lymph nodes). If cancer spreads, it usually does so to these nodes first. There are two ways to check these nodes:

Antihormonal Therapy for Breast Cancer

Estrogen is a hormone made by your ovaries and other tissue in your body. It serves many critical functions. These include developing your female sex organs in puberty, preparing your breasts and uterus for pregnancy in adulthood, and maintaining your cardiovascular and bone health. Without estrogen, your body cannot sustain pregnancy and is susceptible to heart disease and osteoporosis (thinning of your bones).

Estrogen can also make some cancers grow. Your breasts, uterus, and other female organs are made of cells that are stimulated to grow when exposed to estrogen. These cells have areas on their surface called estrogen receptors.

Radiation Therapy for Breast Cancer

The aim of radiation therapy is to kill cancer cells that could remain and cause your cancer to occur again in your breast, chest wall (muscles and ribs), or axilla (armpit). Radiation therapy uses high-energy x-rays to kill cancer cells that remain in your breast or surrounding lymph nodes after surgery. It is almost always used if you have breast-conserving surgery because radiation decreases the risk of local cancer recurrence and improves survival.

External beam radiation therapy (EBRT) is radiation therapy usually delivered from a machine outside your body. You typically have a treatment every day for 5 to 6 weeks.

You may also have an additional, concentrated dose of radiation therapy, called a boost, given directly to a smaller area of your breast where the cancer was found.

Chemotherapy for Breast Cancer

Chemotherapy is the use of anticancer drugs to treat cancerous cells. Chemotherapy reaches all parts of the body, not just the cancer cells. Your oncologist will recommend a treatment plan that is individualized for you.

Specific treatment for breast cancer will be based on a variety of factors, including your age, overall health, and medical history; whether you are menstruating; type and stage of cancer; your tolerance for specific medications and procedures; expectations for the course of the disease; and your opinions and preferences.

The oncologist will also determine how long and how often you will have chemotherapy treatments. Chemotherapy can be administered intravenously (in a vein) or by pill, and is usually a combination of drugs. Treatments are often given in cycles: a treatment period, followed by a recovery period, followed by another treatment period.

Chemotherapy may be given in a variety of settings, including your home (if an oral medication), a hospital outpatient facility, a physician's office or clinic, or in a hospital.

What are the different types of chemotherapy drugs used for breast cancer treatment and their potential side effects?

As each person's individual medical profile and diagnosis is different, so is her or his reaction to treatment. Side effects may be severe, mild, or absent. Be sure to discuss with your cancer care team any possible side effects of treatment before the treatment begins. Most side effects disappear once treatment is stopped. The commonly administered drugs for breast cancer are:

Adriamycin^® (doxorubicin) - Doxorubicin is an intravenous medication. Doxorubicin is red in color, and it may turn urine red or orange for several hours following treatment. Women who receive doxorubicin sometimes experience mouth sores, but always have hair loss. This drug is most often given with cyclophosphamide with or without 5-fluorouracil (5-FU). This drug combination is referred to as "AC or FAC." Four to six cycles of treatment over 3 to 6 months are commonly administered for breast cancer.

Cytoxan®, Neosar® (cyclophosphamide) - Cyclophosphamide is an anticancer drug that can be given either intravenously or orally in tablet form. The intravenous drug is clear. Cyclophosphamide can cause irritation of the lining of the urinary bladder and often causes nausea and vomiting. This drug is most often given with doxorubicin. This drug combination is referred to as "AC." Four to six cycles of treatment over 3 to 6 months are commonly administered for breast cancer.

Folex^®, Mexate^®, Amethopterin^® (methotrexate) - Methotrexate is an anticancer drug that is usually given intravenously for women with breast cancer. The drug is yellow in color. Some women who receive methotrexate experience mouth sores following treatment. This drug is most often given with both cyclophosphamide and fluorouracil. This drug combination is referred to as "CMF." Four to six cycles of treatment over 3 to 6 months are commonly given for breast cancer.

Adrucil^®, Carac^®, Efudex^®, Fluoroplex^® (fluorouracil, 5-FU) - Fluorouracil is an anticancer drug that is given intravenously. The intravenous drug is clear. For some women, fluorouracil can cause mouth sores and diarrhea. This drug is most often given with both cyclophosphamide and methotrexate ("CMF") or with AC as FAC. Four to six cycles of treatment with CMF are usually given over 3 to 6 months for breast cancer.

Taxanes - The taxanes are a group of chemotherapy drugs that include Taxotere^® (docetaxel) and Taxol^® (paclitaxel). Taxanes are typically combined with "AC" chemotherapy in the treatment of breast cancer. Treatment with combination chemotherapy that includes a taxane improves cancer-free survival in women with stage II or stage III breast cancer. The taxanes have also been shown to benefit women with node-negative breast cancer. Treatment can be given with AC and Taxotere at the same time ("TAC") or sequentially as in AC followed by treatment with Taxol or Taxotere.

Surgery for Breast Cancer

Nearly all women with breast cancer have some kind of surgery as part of their diagnosis and/or treatment. The extent of surgery for breast cancer may range from removal of only a small piece of breast tissue to removal of one or both breasts, including the lymph nodes in your armpit (axilla).

Surgery has several purposes:

To obtain a tissue sample for making an accurate diagnosis
To determine the stage of your cancer and whether you need additional treatment
To treat the cancer locally

Strategies to Improve Treatment of Recurrent Breast Cancer

Researchers are currently investigating new treatments for recurrent breast cancer. Participation in trials of these treatments will lead to improved therapies. If you wish to participate in a clinical trial, please talk to your doctor about the potential benefits and side effects of the treatment.

The following are areas of active study aimed at improving the treatment of recurrent breast cancer.

New targeted therapies, including epidermal growth factor receptors (EGFRs), such as Tarceva^® (erlotinib)
Advances in chemotherapy, such as Camptosar^® (irinotecan)
Photodynamic therapy (use of a chemical that destroys only cancer cells when they are exposed to a certain type of light)

Phase I Clinical Trials

New cancer treatments are developed and studied in phase I clinical trials. The purpose of these trials is to determine the best way to give the new treatments and if they are effective against cancer.

Treatment of Recurrent Breast Cancer

Recurrent breast cancer grows during treatment or comes back after a remission. If you are facing a recurrence of breast cancer, the important thing to keep in mind is there is no reason for despair or hopelessness. Many women who are treated for recurrent breast cancer enjoy long and productive lives following a recurrence.

Breast cancer can recur almost anywhere in your body. But common places include your liver, bones, lungs, brain, and skin. Treatment for recurrent breast cancer depends on which treatments you had before, the characteristics of the tumor, and where the cancer has recurred. Rest assured, though, there are many treatment options available to you.

Local-Regional Recurrence

Inflammatory breast cancer is a unique and uncommon type of breast cancer. It accounts for only 1 percent to 4 percent of all breast cancers. This cancer is typically swollen, warm, and hard. These symptoms occur because the cancer cells can block the lymph vessels in the skin of your breast.

Inflammatory breast cancer generally grows rapidly. Also, it often spreads to other parts of your body. Treatment for this type of cancer usually has two parts:

Treatment of Stage IV Breast Cancer

If you have stage IV breast cancer, the cancer has spread from your breast to one or more distant parts of your body. This kind of spreading is called metastasis. So stage IV breast cancer is also called metastatic breast cancer.

If you are facing a diagnosis of stage IV breast cancer, the important thing to know is that this is not cause for despair or hopelessness. There are many treatment options available today.

In the past, the goal of treatment was to relieve symptoms, and help women live as long and as good a life as possible. But there have been some important advances recently that have given women with stage IV breast cancer many more treatment options. These include new chemotherapy drugs, the development of targeted therapies, and the development of better antihormonal therapy drugs.

Antihormonal Therapy

Treatment of Stage III Breast Cancer

If you have stage III breast cancer, your cancer has one of the following characteristics:

Stage IIIA - The cancer (1) measures less than 5 centimeters (2 inches) and has spread to four to nine lymph nodes in your armpit (axilla); or (2) to lymph nodes in your rib cage (near the breast bone); or (3) it is larger than 5 centimeters and has spread to one to nine underarm or rib cage lymph nodes.
Stage IIIB - The tumor has grown into your chest wall or skin, and may have spread to as many as nine underarm lymph nodes.
Stage IIIC - The cancer has spread to (1) 10 or more lymph nodes under your arm and one or more under or above the clavicle; or (2) to the nodes in your rib cage.

Treatment of Stage II Breast Cancer

If you have stage II breast cancer, you have a cancer that is between 2 and 5 centimeters and may have spread to the lymph nodes. Treatment guidelines vary depending on the specifics of the tumor, but always includes surgery—usually a lumpectomy—and removal of lymph nodes as necessary. Radiation, chemotherapy, antiestrogen treatment, and targeted treatments--such as Herceptin^® (trastuzumab)—may also be recommended depending on the specifics of the tumor, the your age, and other factors.

Effective treatment of stage II breast cancer requires both local treatment and systemic treatment. Local treatment consists of surgery and/or radiation therapy. It is directed at destroying any cancer cells in or near your breast. Systemic treatment is directed at destroying cancer cells throughout your body. It may include chemotherapy, targeted therapy, or antihormonal therapy. These therapies are often given after surgery. Then they are called adjuvant therapies.

Local Treatment: Surgery and Radiation

Treatment of Stage I Breast Cancer

Stage I breast cancer is a single area of cancer in your breast that is less than 2 centimeters (three-fourths inch) in size and has not spread outside your breast.

The majority of women with stage I breast cancer are cured by treatment with surgery and radiation therapy. But some women may benefit from more treatment with chemotherapy and/or antihormonal therapy. Treatment after surgery is called adjuvant therapy. It may further decrease the risk that your cancer will recur (come back).

Primary Treatment of Stage I Breast Cancer: Surgery and Radiation

Treatment of Ductal Carcinoma In Situ

Breast cancer that has not broken out of the ducts and lobules in your breast is called carcinoma in situ. There are two kinds:

Ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS) - begins in the lining of your ducts. It is thought to be an early form of invasive breast cancer. DCIS is highly curable. Removing it prevents invasive breast cancer.

Lobular carcinoma in situ (LCIS) - begins in the lining of your lobules. LCIS seems to be an indicator for an increased risk of getting invasive breast cancer. The role of early treatment is less clear for LCIS.

With the increasing use of screening mammography, these cancers are more frequently diagnosed. They now make up 15 percent to 20 percent of all breast cancers.

About DCIS

Surgery for Breast Cancer

Surgery has several purposes:

To obtain a tissue sample for making an accurate diagnosis

To determine the stage of your cancer and whether you need additional treatment

To treat the cancer locally

A variety of factors will influence the decisions you and your health care provider make about your treatment. These include: your overall health, your age and medical history; the type and stage of your breast cancer; the available treatments (and their side effects); and your goal and preferences for treatment. When making decisions about treatment, be sure to discuss all of these topics with your doctor.

Types of Treatment

The best treatment of breast cancer often requires more than one type of treatment and can include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, and antihormonal therapy. Newer therapies are being studied that are tailored to molecular characteristics of breast tumors. These treatments are called targeted or biologic therapies.

What is Bladder Cancer?

The urinary bladder is a hollow, balloon-like organ located in the pelvis that collects and stores urine until it is ready to be excreted from the body. Urine is produced in the kidneys and is transported to the bladder through two tube-like structures called ureters. Pressure from the accumulation of urine in the urinary bladder forces the wall of the bladder to contract producing the urge to urinate. The urine is then excreted from the bladder via the urethra (a thin tube that carries urine from the bladder to the outside of the body).

The wall of the bladder is composed of several different layers that are important in understanding the development, progression, and treatment of bladder cancer. When viewed under a microscope, a cross-section of the bladder wall reveals the following layers of cells:

The bladder is an extraperitoneal muscular urine reservoir that lies behind the pubis symphysis in the pelvis. At the dome of the bladder lies the median umbilical ligament, a fibrous cord that is anchored to the umbilicus and that represents the obliterated urachus. This ligament contains vessels that must be ligated when divided.

Particular signs of gallbladder cancer tumor generally are registered on the last degree of the cancer tumor and these that completely recognize gallbladder illness are frequently concious of this. That is the purpose why individuals who have gall bladder complications will require to monitor their very own difficulty far more frequently.

Etiology of Bladder Bancer

Up to 80% of bladder cancer cases are associated with environmental exposure. Tobacco use is by far the most common cause of bladder cancer in the United States and is increasing in importance in some developing countries. Smoking duration and intensity are directly related to increased risk. Compared with nonsmokers, smokers have a 2-6 times increased risk of developing bladder carcinoma. The risk appears to be similar between men and women.Nitrosamine, 2-naphthylamine, and 4-aminobiphenyl are possible carcinogenic agents found in cigarette smoke.

How does Bladder cancer develop ?

In most cases, bladder cancer is caused by external factors. Cigarette smoking (because of harmful chemicals within the cigarette) and exposure to some carcinogenic (cancer causing) agents such as aromatic compounds and chemicals used in industry and elsewhere can lead to bladder cancer.

Approximately 50 per cent of all cases are caused by tobacco smoking and 10 per cent by job-related factors.

Stopping smoking, even after many years, can be beneficial, as ex-smokers have a lower rate of bladder cancer than those who continue to smoke.

In the tropics, bladder cancer is often brought about by the widespread disease bilharziasis (river blindness), which is caused by a tiny micro-organism that invades the bladder.

How is bladder cancer diagnosed?

If blood is discovered in the urine or there are constant symptoms of bladder irritation of unknown cause, the patient should be examined by a doctor. In order to reach a diagnosis the GP will refer the patient urgently to the local hospital urology department for a series of special examinations.

If a tumour is suspected, a procedure called a cystoscopy, is necessary, in which a doctor looks up into the bladder via the urethra using an instrument called a cystoscope.

In addition, ultrasound scans or X-rays of the whole urinary tract are taken - an intravenous urogram.

The urine may also be examined under a microscope for malignant cells.

When the diagnosis has been made and the extent of the cancer is known, the type of treatment will be considered.

How is bladder cancer treated?

Treatment will differ according to the spread of the cancer. There are two main groups.

Superficial cancer (non-invasive).

This means there is no evidence that the tumour has spread into the muscle coat of the bladder. The majority fall into this category and can usually be cured.

Treatment is usually by cautery (burning of abnormal tissue) through a cytoscope or scraping the tissue away with a specially adapted telescopic instrument. There may be only one, or possibly several, tumours on the bladder.

Where does bladder cancer tend to spread?

Bladder Cancer:
Where does bladder cancer tend to spread?

Monday 10 October 2011

Bladder Cancer

Definition of bladder cancer: Cancer that forms in tissues of the bladder (the organ that stores urine). Most bladder cancers are transitional cell carcinomas (cancer that begins in cells that normally make up the inner lining of the bladder). Other types include squamous cell carcinoma (cancer that begins in thin, flat cells) and adenocarcinoma (cancer that begins in cells that make and release mucus and other fluids). The cells that form squamous cell carcinoma and adenocarcinoma develop in the inner lining of the bladder as a result of chronic irritation and inflammation.

Estimated new cases and deaths from bladder cancer in the United States in 2011:

New cases: 69,250

Deaths: 14,990

See the online booklet What You Need To Know About™ Bladder Cancer to learn about bladder cancer symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, and questions to ask the doctor.

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